Dr. Carolyn West

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West, C.M. (2000). Developing an "oppositional gaze" toward the image of Black women. In J. Chrisler, C. Golden, & P. Rozee (Eds.), Lectures on the Psychology of Women (pp. 220-233). Boston, MA: McGraw Hill. Bell Hooks, a Black feminist scholar believes that we need to take an "oppositional gaze" toward the images of Black women. It is her belief that these images should be critically examined and challenged. Moreover, she believes that we should deconstruct these images to reflect more positive and accurate representations of Black women. This is what I would like to do in my lecture. First, I would like to start with a brief historical overview, which will include why these images were created and why they persist. We will see that these images are rooted in history, shaped by structural inequalities, such as racism, sexism, and classism, and further reinforced by the media. Second, I want to explore how these images may influence the psychological functioning of some Black women. Specifically, I want to discuss how the Mammy image can contribute to role strain, or the challenge of balancing multiple roles, and concerns about physical features, including skin color, hair texture, and weight. Next, I want to discuss how the Jezebel image is related to feelings about sexual victimization. Finally, I want to explore how Black women's expression of anger is shaped by the Sapphire image. All readers, regardless of their background, can be more aware of these images and challenge them in a more assertive way. By taking an "oppositional gaze," as Bell Hooks suggested, we can work together to make sure that all groups are fairly and accurately represented. West, C. M., & Rose, S. (2000). Dating aggression among low income African American youth: An examination of gender differences and antagonistic beliefs. Violence Against Women, 6(5), 470-494. Prevalence of aggression inflicted and sustained in dating relationships was investigated for 171 low income African American youth. More women were victims of choking, attempted forced intercourse, and hurt feelings. As perpetrators, more women reported making threats, throwing objects, and hitting their partner. However, men perpetrated more serious sexual and psychological aggression, including forced breast fondling, attempted forced intercourse, and making a partner feel inferior and degrading them. Women victims of sexual aggression, when compared to nonvictims, expressed more agreement with adversarial sexual beliefs regarding male-female relationships. More than one third of the participants endorsed antagonistic beliefs concerning Black male-female relationships. Suggestions for intervention are presented. West, C. M., Williams, L. M., & Siegel, J. A. (2000). Adult sexual revictimization among Black women sexually abused in childhood: A prospective examination of serious consequences of abuse. Child Maltreatment, 5(1), 49-57. This study is a prospective investigation of adult sexual revictimization among 113 Black women with documented histories of childhood sexual abuse. The purpose was to obtain information on the frequency of sexual abuse in both childhood and adulthood and to determine which characteristics of the child sexual abuse were predictive of revictimization. Thirty percent of the participants were revictimized and physical force predicted subsequent victimization. This study also investigated possible sexual behavioral correlates of revictimization. Revictimized women reported more involvement in prostitution and partner violence. Finally, the present study considered the reproductive and sexual health correlates of revictimization. When compared to women abused in childhood only, revictimized women experienced more problems conceiving, repeated vaginal infections, sexually transmitted diseases, and painful intercourse. Suggestions for intervention are discussed. West, C. M. (1998). Leaving a second closet: Outing partner violence in same-sex couples. In J. L. Jasinski & L. M. Williams (Eds.), Partner violence: A comprehensive review of 20 years of research (163-183). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the emerging literature on same-sex partner violence. First, a brief description of the challenges and types of discrimination faced by this population is presented. Second, the incidence rates and distinct forms that gay and lesbian battering might assume are discussed. Next, correlates of partner violence and research limitations are highlighted. Finally, treatment implications and recommendations for policy are suggested. West, C. M. (1998). Lifting the "political gag order": Breaking the silence around partner violence in ethnic minority families. In J. L. Jasinski & L. M. Williams (Eds.), Partner violence: A comprehensive review of 20 years of research (184-209). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. This chapter reviews research on partner violence in ethnic minority groups, focusing on the 4 largest groups in the U.S.: African Americans, Latinos, Asian Americans, and American Indians. First, a brief description of each group is presented. Second, the literature on partner violence among these groups is reviewed. Specifically, ethnic differences, demographic and cultural factors that potentially contribute to higher rates of partner violence among ethnic minorities, and limitations of the research are addressed. Third, therapeutic implications, including barriers to help seeking, hallmarks of culturally appropriate assessments, and culture-specific treatment recommendations are discussed. Finally, recommendations for policy are suggested. West, C. M., Kaufman Kantor, G., & Jasinski, J. L. (1998). Sociodemographic predictors and cultural barriers to help-seeking behavior by Latinas and Anglo American battered women. Violence & Victims, 13(4), 361-375. Data from a national survey were used to investigate the help-seeking efforts of Latinas (Mexican, Mexican American, Puerto Rican) and Anglo American women who experienced battering by intimate partners. The findings revealed that battered Latinas were significantly younger, less educated, and more impoverished than Anglo women. Additionally, Latinas more often categorized their marriages as male dominated and their husbands as heavy drinkers. Bivariate analyses showed that Latinas who sought help were significantly more acculturated and more likely to have a heavy drinking husband than those who did not seek help. Although battered women were active help seekers, Latinas underutilized both informal and formal resources relative to Anglo women, with Mexican women least likely to seek assistance. When sociodemographic predictors of help seeking were analyzed, being youthful and Anglo significantly increased the odds of help-seeking efforts. Low acculturation, as measured by preference for the Spanish language, was the only significant cultural barrier to help seeking by Latinas. Implications for treatment include improved outreach and advocacy to underserved groups. West, C. M. (1998). The connection between historical images of Black women and domestic violence. In Assembling the pieces: Leadership in addressing domestic violence in the African American community. Conference proceedings of the Institute on Domestic Violence in the African American community. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. West, C. M. (1995). Mammy, Sapphire, and Jezebel: Historical images of Black women and their implications for psychotherapy. Psychotherapy, 32(2), 458-466.) Identifies 3 historical images of Black women (Mammy, Sapphire, and Jezebel), and discusses the impact of each image on Black women's psychological functioning. Issues associated with these images include disordered eating, concerns about skin color and other physical features, role strain, the expression of anger; sexual functioning, and victimization. Discussion focuses on the relevance of these issues to psychotherapeutic practice.